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Topia!: Society: Philosophy: Reference: Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (179)
 The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Free online encyclopedia. Edited by James Fieser, hosted by the University of Tennessee at Martin.
Academy - Description of the philosophical institution founded by Plato, which advocated skepticism in succeeding generations. Active Powers - The capacities of impulse and desire which lead to or determine human action, as described by 18th and 19th century Scottish common sense philosophy. Aenesidemus - Biography of the 1st century philosopher who defended the ten tropes of skepticism. Affection - In the history of ethics, the term referred to a subset of emotions less violent and less sensuous than "passions". Anaxagoras - Greek philosopher born about 500 BCE, responsible for giving philosophy a home at Athens and the first philosopher to introduce a spiritual principle which gives matter life and form. Anaxarchus - 4th century BCE philosopher of Abdera, from the school of Democritus. Anaximander - Greek philosopher of Miletus, born 611 BCE who thought it unnecessary to fix upon air, water, or fire as the original and primary form of body. Anaximenes - 5th century BCE Greek philosopher of Miletus who regarded 'air' as the primary form of body. Anselm - 11th century English prelate who developed views of atonement and satisfaction which are still held by orthodox theologians. Antisthenes - Athenian philosopher and founder of the Cynic sect who was born around 440 BCE. Applied Ethics - The branch of ethics concerned with analysis of contemporary moral issues such as abortion, animal rights, and euthanasia. Aquinas, Thomas - The life and work of the major figure in scholastic philosophy. Aristotle - The life and work of the 4th century BCE Greek philosopher. Artificial Intelligence - Describing the view that human cognitive mental states can be duplicated in computers. Augustine - Extensive article on the life and work of the 4th century ecclesiastical author. Bacon, Francis - 16th century philosopher and politician. Bakhtin Circle - School of Russian thought centered on the work of Bakhtin which focused on questions of signification in artistic creation. Beccaria, Cesare - 18th century aristocrat whose work 'On Crimes and Punishments (1764)' inspired reform in the Italian criminal justice system. Behaviorism - Theory in philosophy of mind which maintains that talk of mental events should be translated into talk about observable behavior. Bentham, Jeremy - Extensive article on the 18th century 'founder' of utilitarianism. Berkeley, George - Influential 18th century Irish philosopher. Berlin Circle - Group of academics who gathered round Hans Reichenbach in late 1920s and later joined up with the Vienna Circle. Bolingbroke, Henry St. John - 18th century Tory disciple of Locke. Butler, Joseph - 18th century icon of a highly intellectualized theology. Caird, Edward - Nineteenth century Scottish philosopher who was one of the key figures of the idealist movement that dominated British philosophy from 1870 until the mid 1920s. Capital Punishment - The issue of capital punishment involves determining whether the execution of criminals is ever justified. Carnap, Rudolf - Extensive article about his life and work, by Mauro Murzi. Category - Used to describe fundamental divisions, was coined by Aristotle then explored by Kant, Hegel, Pierce, Whitehead, and Ryle. Chinese Room Argument - John Searle's thought experiment is one of the best known counters to claims of artificial intelligence. Chrysippus - Prolific stoic of Soli, and disciple of Cleanthes. Cicero, Marcus Tullius - 1st century BCE Roman orator and philosopher of the New Academy. Cleanthes - Stoic philosopher of Assus in Lydia, disciple of Zeno of Citium. Cudworth, Ralph - 17th century 'Cambridge Platonist' who fought for preservation of religious ideals, including divine illumination. Cumberland, Richard - 17th century critic of Hobbes and the neo-Platonists. Damon - 5th century BCE Pythagorean philosopher of Syracuse. Davidson, Donald - Introduction to one of the most significant philosophers concerned with philosophy of mind and action of the 20th/21st century. Deism, English - Explores the deism of Hobbes, Locke, Tindal, and the influence of Hume. Deism, French - The deism of Voltaire and Rousseau. Democritus - 4th century BCE philosopher of Abdera who expanded the atomic theory of Leucippus. Demonax - Philosopher of the second century CE. who tried to revive the philosophy of the Cynic School. Descartes, René - Early modern philosopher who rejected religious authority in the quest for scientific and philosophical knowledge. Dewey, John - Leading light of the 20th century American school of thought known as pragmatism. Diderot, Denis - The most prominent of the French Encyclopedists and one of the leaders of the Enlightenment. Diogenes Laertius - 3rd century biographer of ancient Greek philosophers. Diogenes of Apollonia - Pupil of Anaximenes and contemporary of Anaxagoras in the 6th cn. BCE. Diogenes of Sinope - 4th cn. BCE cynic philosopher of Sinope. Duties and Deontological Ethics - Deontological theories are based on moral obligation that an agent has towards another person. Eckhart, Meister - 13th century Dominican mystic who was almost forgotten until Franz von Baader revived his memory in the nineteenth century. Eclecticism - Group of ancient philosophers who sought to reach by selection the highest degree of probability in the search for truth. Egoism, Psychological and Ethical - Maintains that the individual self is the motivating moral force and the end of moral action. Emanation - The theory that all derived or secondary things flow from the primary. Empedocles - 5th century BCE philosopher who combined medical study with Orphic mysticism. Empiricism, British - 18th century British philosophical movement which maintained that all knowledge comes from experience. Encyclopedists - Group of French philosophers and men of letters who collaborated in the production of the famous Encyclopedie. Epictetus - Eminent Stoic philosopher, born as a slave at Hieropolis in Phyrgia in 55 CE. Epicurus - 4th century BCE materialist, empiricist, and hedonist. One of the major philosophers of the Hellenistic period. Erasmus - 15th century Dutch humanist and theologian. Moral Philosophy - Introduction to ethics, with links to other articles at the IEP. Euclides - 4th century BCE native of Megara, and founder of the Megarian or Eristic sect. Euthanasia - Contemporary applied ethical issue considering whether it is morally permissible for a third party to end the life of a terminally ill patient who is in intense pain. Evolution - Introduces evolution through the ages, from the ancient Greeks, through Leibniz and Descartes to Darwin and Spencer. Ferrier, James Frederick - The earliest absolute idealist in English philosophy. Fichte, Immanuel Hermann - Aimed to secure a philosophical basis for the personality of God. Fichte, Johann Gottlieb - One of the major figures in German philosophy in the period between Kant and Hegel. Freud, Sigmund - Lenghty article on the father of psychoanalysis who is generally recognised as one of the most influential and authoritative thinkers of the twentieth century. Functionalism - Theory in the philosophy of mind which holds that mental states are functional states. Galileo - Italian physicist and astronomer, born 1564. German Idealism - The German reaction to empiricism, including related theories of Kant, Fichte, Hegel and others. Gorgias - Greek sophist and rhetorician, known as "the Nihilist," born in 483 BCE. Greek Philosophy - The philosophical currents of Ancient Greek philosophy are introduced, from the Presocratic philosophers through to Proclus. Hamilton, William - 19th century exponent of the Scottish common-sense philosophy. Hartmann, Karl Robert Eduard Von - 19th century German philosopher who attempted to combine the idea of Hegel with the will of Schopenhauer in 'spiritual monism.' Hedonism - The view, first put forward by Epicurus, that our fundamental moral obligation is to maximize pleasure. Hegelians, St. Louis - 19th century group of amateur American philosophers founded and led by William Torrey Harris. Helvetius, Claude Adrien - One of the 18th century Encyclopedists who held the skeptical and materialistic views common to that school of philosophy. Hempel, Carl Gustav - A leading member of logical positivism, the German philosopher died in 1997. Heraclitus - 5th century BCE. Presocratic Greek philosopher. Herbert of Cherbury, Edward - 17th century historian, poet (brother of George), and philosopher. Sought to determine the nature and standard of truth, and conditions of knowledge. Precursor of the philosophy of Common Sense. Hippias - Hippias was a sophist, a contemporary of Socrates, and an enthusiast for universality. Hodgson, Shadworth - Follower of Kant, founder of the Aristotelian Society. Humanism - Brief article on Erasmus and the Italian humanist movement. Positivism, Logical - Schlick, Carnap, Reichenbach, and others made up the Austrian school of philosophy in the 1920s, which has been influential in analysis of scientific thought. Husserl, Edmund - Leader of the German phenomenological movement. Huxley, Thomas Henry - 19th century zoologist and advocate of Darwinism. Identity Theory - Form of monistic materialism which maintains that mental states and brain activities are identical. Interventionism - Examines the nature and justifications of interfering with another polity or choices made by individuals. Jacobi, Friedrich Heinrich - 18th century German philosopher, famous for effective criticism of Kant. Just War Theory - Some of those who have attempted to justify war include Aquinas, Grotius, and Pufendorf. Positivism, Legal - Theory that law is manufactured according to certain social conventions. Leucippus - 5th century BCE founder of atomism. Libraries, Ancient Greek and Roman - Describing the public libraries of Ancient Greece, and the fashion for book-collecting in Rome. Locke, John - Article on the life and work of the influential philosopher. Lombard, Peter - French scholastic theologian of the 12th century, influenced by Abelard. Lotze, Rudolf Hermann - 19th century German philosopher who criticised the pantheism of Hegel. Lucretius - Roman poet and advocate of Epicurean philosophy. Machiavelli, Nicolo - Renaissance philosopher who remains controversial for his practical solutions to problems of how to retain political authority. Malebranche, Nicholas - 17th century Cartesian philosopher. Author of The Search After Truth (1674-1675). Menippus - Third century BCE Greek philosopher and satirist. Mill, John Stuart - 19th leader and prophet of utilitarianism, heir to the Hume-Bentham line, and influential force in modern political theory. Author of On Liberty (1859), and Utilitarianism (1863). Monism - Originally described idealists and materialists. Now the term is used for all philosophers who have a unifying theory. Those who are not monists are either dualist or pluralist. Moral Dilemmas - Situation where only two courses of action are available, each requiring a morally impermissible action. Moral Luck - Andrew Latus, St. Francis Xavier University, summarizes the discussion between Thomas Nagel and Bernard Williams on the question: Can luck ever make a moral difference? Moral Skepticism - The theory, supported by J.L. Mackie in Ethics: Inventing Right and Wrong, that belief in objective moral principles cannot be justified. Morality and Religion - Brief article describing the influence of religion on moral philosophy. Natural Law - Standards that govern human behavior objectively derived from the nature of human beings. Natural Theology - Used in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries to describe knowledge of God drawn from nature. Naturalistic Fallacy - Moore's theory that "goodness" is an individual property which cannot be explained in terms of anything more basic. Neoplatonism - The revival of Greek philosophy in 3rd century BCE, led by Plotinus and his disciple, Porphyry. Influenced by both Pythagoras and Plato. Ockham, William of - Detailed biography of the 14th century Franciscan. Ordinary Language - Ordinary language philosophy examines the way common language is used. Origen - Father of the early Church, born around 182. Solipsism - The doctrine of the solipsist is that existence means my existence and that of my mental states. Paine, Thomas - 18th century British political writer. Paley, William - 18th century British theologian. Parmenides - Greek philosopher and poet. Peripatetics - Brief history of the Peripatetic doctrines. Plotinus - 3rd century CE founder of Neo-Platonism. Pluralism - Theory that reality consists of a multiplicity of fundamentally distinct entities. Poincaré, Jules Henri - 19th century French philosopher of science. Prima Facie Duties - Moral obligations which are binding only until a stronger one emerges. Prodicus - 5th century BCE sophist, possibly a mentor of Socrates Protagoras - Early Greek sophist. Pufendorf, Samuel von - 17th century Lutheran clergyman. Pyrrho - 4th century BCE founder of the Greek school of skepticism. Pythagoras - The 6th century BCE philosopher. Rationalism, Continental - 17th century philosophical movement. Rival to British Empiricism. Reichenbach, Hans - Leading German philosopher of science, and logical positivist. Renaissance - Brief article on the transition between middle ages and modernity. Roman Philosophy - Short introduction to Roman philosophy from the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Rousseau, Jean Jacques - 18th century French author of the Social Contract, influential during the French Revolution. Rule Utilitarianism - Utilitarianism when applied to a behavioral code or rule. A rule is right if its consequences are more favorable than unfavorable. Shaftesbury, Earl of - Patron of John Locke Shpet, Gustav - Leading proponent of Russian transcendental phenomenology. Skepticism, Ancient Greek - A description of skepticism in Ancient Greece, led by Pyrrho. Skepticism, Contemporary - Introduction to the current discussion of skepticism. Skepticism, Modern - Review of the modern era in skepticism. Social Contract - View that morality is based on social agreements that serve the interests of those who make the agreement. Solovyov, Vladimir - 19th century Russian philosopher. Sophists - Teachers of philosophy in Ancient Greece, including Protagoras, Gorgias, Prodicus and Hippias. Spinoza, Benedict - 17th century pantheist, critic of Descartes. Stephen, Leslie - 19th century British academic. Stilpo - 4th century BCE member of the Megarean school. Stirling, James Hutchison - 19th century British Idealist, Hegelian academic. Stoicism - Description of the system of ethics, popular in Ancient Greece, which has physics as its foundation. Sublime - Aesthetic value with the suggestion of transcendent vastness or greatness. Suicide - Discussion of the applied ethical issue of suicide. Supererogation - An action which goes beyond what is morally required. Symposium - Drinking-parties in Ancient Greece where the guests reclined on couches, and were crowned with garlands of flowers. Synderesis - Scholastic philosophy describes this as the principle in moral consciousness which directs an agent to good. Taste - Critical discernment of objects of aesthetic experience. Temperance - Moderation, advocated by much of Ancient Greek and Scholastic philosophy. Thales - Detailed biographical essay on the Ancient Greek philosopher. Theophrastus - Philosopher of the Peripatetic school, successor to Aristotle at the Lyceum. Theosophy - Detailed article on the religious, philosophic, and scientific theory of one eternal, immutable, principle, being the root of all manifestation. Time - Long article about questions of time discussed throughout the history of philosophy. Timon - 3rd century BCE disciple of Pyrrho. Totem - A term, derived from Native American, used in philosophy to describe one of a class of objects which a community regards with respect. Tragedy - A term used in aesthetics to describe a situation where elements of pain and pleasure exist simultaneously. Universals - The traditional problem of universals is whether and how they are independent of human perception. Vienna Circle - Organised the development of logical postivism in the 1920s. Included Carnap, Feigl, Frank, Gödel, Hahn, Kraft, Neurath, Waismann. Popper and Wittgenstein also had association with the Vienna Circle. Virtue Theory - View that morality is the development of or virtues. Voluntarism - Theory that God or the ultimate nature of reality is conceived as some form of will. Warburton, William - 18th century Church of England bishop, and critic of the Deists. Wittgenstein, Ludwig - Detailed essay on the life and work of the 20th century philosopher. Xenophanes - Eleatic school, powerful 6th century BCE critic of polytheism. Xenophon - Pupil of Socrates, who contributed to the record of his life. Zeno of Elea - 5th century BCE Eleatic philosopher. Hume, David - Enormously influential 18th century Scottish philosopher. Author of Treatise of Human Nature (1739-1740). Aristippus - Description of the life and teachings of the philosopher Aristippus, founder of the Cyrenaic school of philosophy. Cyrenaics - Description of the Cyrenaic school of philosophy, which flourished from the 5th-3rd centuries BCE. The Cyrenaics were skeptics and hedonists. Animals and Ethics - Consideration of moral status of non-human animals. Russell's Paradox - Examines self-referential linguistics used to describe properties and sets. Truth - Philosophical theories on the nature of truth, by Bradley Dowden and Norman Swartz. God, Western Concepts of - Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy article on God from Socrates to Nietzsche. Plato - Biography and description of the philosophy of Plato. Stoic Philosophy of Mind - Description of the philosophy of Mind of the Stoics, including the relationship between mind and body, perception, action-theory, and emotion. Rights, Human - A treatment of the origins and development of the theory of human rights, with philosophical analysis, justifications, and criticisms. Hobbes, Thomas - 17th century British philosopher. Author of Leviathan (1651).
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